on the Relationship Between Psychopathy and General Intelligence a Meta-analytic Review

Since Paulhus and Williams (2002) grouped three psychological constructs – psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism – into an infamous conglomerate, the so-chosen night triad of personality (D3) has become a prominent model to describe, explain and predict socially aversive behavior. Psychopathy (P) is characterized by superficial charm, deceptive and manipulating beliefs, a lack of remorse, empathy, and emotionality, a tendency to criminality, every bit well as antisocial behavior in general (Hare, 1999). Machiavellianism (One thousand) describes a lack of issue in interpersonal relations, a utilitarian worldview with no firm moral standards, a tendency to manipulate others, and a lack of psychopathology (Christie & Geis, 1970). Egotistic (N) individuals tend to feel superior to others, brag nearly themselves, and intend to boss their social surroundings (Raskin & Hall, 1981).

On a conceptual level, the constructs of the D3 share several features, like low interpersonal event, a tendency of manipulation, the need to boss others, or a general tendency of indifference to the interests of others. This impedes a conceptual differentiation between the P, One thousand, and N, which is likewise reflected in its operationalizations. Consequently, the triad shows loftier empirical overlap (Muris et al., 2017; Vize et al., 2018). All the same, some conceptual features of the nighttime triad are at odds with ane another, for example, in regards to the role of impulsivity for M and P (Furnham et al., 2013; Jones & Paulhus, 2011; McHoskey et al., 1998). Recently, the dark triad has been expanded by the inclusion of everyday sadism to be described as the "dark tetrad" (Paulhus, 2014), but is also faced with theoretical "contest" due to the emergence of the Honesty-Humility-factor (HH) from the HEXACO-model past Lee and Ashton (2013). There is convincing empirical evidence that (low) HH is the "core" of the D3 and is all-time suited to explicate the mutual D3-variance (Hodson et al., 2018). Moshagen et al. (2018) demonstrated that "D" – the and then-called dark cistron of personality that partly consists of shared D3-variance – has a stiff empirical overlap with depression HH. A potent negative correlation regarding D3 and agreeableness has also been reported (O'Boyle et al., 2015) which makes (dis-)agreeableness another valid candidate for the D3-cadre.

Several authors take argued that the D3 is an adaptive set of personality traits that enable D3-individuals to manipulate their social surroundings effectively: Psychopaths are thought to be "shine operators" and exploitative social predators that are able to attain powerful positions as managers or politicians (Babiak & Hare, 2006; Babiak et al., 2010; Furnham, 2010; Hare, 1999; Porter et al., 2009), Machiavellians are seen as a common cold manipulator with complex plans to achieve their objectives (Bereczkei, 2018; Christie & Geis, 1970; Simonton, 1986; Wilson et al., 1998) and narcissist are claimed to be mannerly entertainers (Back et al., 2010; Jauk et al., 2016; Jonason et al., 2012; Paulhus, 1998).

The Night Triad and Intelligence

It is not uncommon amongst D3-researchers to presume that the trend to testify manipulative beliefs goes along with the actual ability to manipulate others finer (Jonason & Webster, 2012; Nagler et al., 2014). Although the empirical support for this merits is sparse and some authors accept recently challenged this view of highly adaptive D3-individuals (Jones & Paulhus, 2009; Lilienfeld et al., 2015; Watts et al., 2013; Wright et al., 2015), it does not seem implausible at start. Consequently, one might deduce that either (a) certain theoretical aspects of the night triad atomic number 82 to successful manipulations or (b) that the D3 are then again positively related to other variables that are ordinarily connected to criteria of success. If 1 follows the logic of the latter aspect, intelligence seems to be a valid candidate for test, since it has been shown to exist a relevant predictor of several criteria of success (Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; Sternberg, 1997; Strenze, 2007). Additionally, it seems conceptionally plausible that circuitous manipulative behavior is more likely to be successful if the manipulator has high cerebral abilities. One might even argue that D3-individuals actually "need" a certain level of intelligence to carry their socially aversive behavior in an effective manner (Salekin et al., 2004). This might particularly apply to social intelligence and emotional intelligence which can be conceived equally sub-branches of intelligence (Conzelmann et al., 2013; Mayer et al., 2016). Currently, there is about no empirical bear witness on the D3-relations regarding social intelligence, but in that location take been meta-analyses on the dark triad and emotional intelligence (Megías et al., 2018; Miao et al., 2019; Vize et al., 2018).

In this study, a possible relation between the dark triad of personality and cognitive ability was examined in order to further inspect if D3-individuals are able to role ordinarily and if they are predisposed for (mal-)adaptive behavior due to their (low) intelligence. The method of choice was a systematic literature review in combination with a meta-analysis. In this study, the principal issue was the D3-relation with full general intelligence. The D3-relations with potential sub-branches of intelligence were examined: exact (to examine if D3-individuals might accept superior verbal abilities that might support their manipulation tactics specifically in social situations) and non-verbal intelligence (to examine if D3-individuals might have special abstract abilities that might enable them to generate complex manipulative plans in advance).

Theory-Based Expectations

For Thou and P, there are a few theoretical/conceptual allusions that might constitute a relationship with intelligence. In the form of the first psychopathy concept, Cleckley (1941) describes the psychopath equally an individual with "adept 'intelligence'," although he more often than not refers to psychopathic pseudo-intellectuality rather than bodily loftier cognitive abilities. Virtually studies with the P-intelligence-relation equally their main topic refer to Checkley'south casuistic reports (Johansson & Kerr, 2005; Salekin et al., 2004; Sharratt et al., 2019; Vitacco et al., 2008) as the reason to examine this relationship: Some individuals have shown psychopathic behavior and had high intelligence at the same fourth dimension. Studies on cognitive features of psychopathy seem to advise that there are very specific deficits or abnormalities in bottom-upward and hemispheric processing (Hiatt & Newman, 2006) with no relation to general intelligence, but rather emotional deficits and impulsivity (Fowles & Dindo, 2006). Criminal behavior has been linked to lower intelligence (Bartels et al., 2010; Gendreau et al., 1996) and since i crucial attribute of (secondary) psychopathy is a history of misdeed, it might constitute a negative empirical connection between intelligence and P. Vitacco et al. (2008) look no overall consequence for intelligence and P, merely assume that there might be unlike relations on the P-facet-level to intelligence (positive relations to primary P and negative relations to secondary P). The concept of "Machiavellian Intelligence" suggests that Machiavellians possess special cognitive abilities – although the term is originally used in evolutionary psychology and not personality/social psychology (Whiten & Byrne, 1997). However, Bereczkei (2018) refers to the concept and argues that Machiavellians practise take certain cognitive abilities that enable them to effectively exploit others. 1 might consider Machiavellian behavior as "smart" since it (conceptionally) relies on careful planning and circuitous manipulations, just note that the endeavour to act in a complex style is not necessarily related to that specific ability. Furthermore, there is no disarming evidence that loftier-scorers on existing M-tests bear in a "Machiavellian," that is, carefully planned way. Although narcissists themselves claim to have high cognitive abilities, they have shown to overstate their intelligence more than than others (Gabriel et al., 1994). Zajenkowski and Dufner (2020) state that self-perceived (high) intelligence plays a cardinal role in egotistic self-views: Narcissists attribute their successes to their (assumed) high intelligence and are eager to announced as intelligent individuals to others – although narcissism was unrelated to performance in IQ-tests. Still, it might be possible that individuals with high intelligence might "larn" a grade of narcissism as a event of their various successes in life which would issue in a positive link between narcissism and intelligence. Beyond that, at that place is no theoretical reason to assume that there is a relationship between N and intelligence. Notation that no D3-model specifically includes or mentions any relation to intelligence. Finally, in that location was no reason to look that the D3-traits might exist related to sub-branches of intelligence distinctively, for instance, M existence related to verbal intelligence, merely not non-exact intelligence. Taken together, no relations between the night triad and full general intelligence tin can be expected based on their concepts.

Empirically-Based Expectations

Apart from the aforementioned conceptional examination, note that work past Mischel (1968) already demonstrated that personality is at nigh moderately related to external criteria – consequently, meaningful relations seem unlikely in the get-go identify. Diverse studies have shown that cognitive ability is often weakly related to personality. This has been shown for the Five-Cistron-Model of personality (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Furnham et al., 2005), but likewise the HEXACO-model (Oh et al., 2014). Especially the latter finding is notable for this study: Since low Honesty-Humility seems to be the empirical (not theoretical) core of the dark triad and HH is unrelated to cerebral ability, it appears unlikely that there is an empirical connection between intelligence and the dark triad. Furthermore, in that location are already ii meta-analyses on the D3-intelligence relation that find a small negative effect for psychopathy and intelligence (de Ribera et al., 2017) and no relation at all for the consummate triad (O'Boyle et al., 2013). Both analyses either rely on D3-cocky-reports or include D3-tests that have non shown to exist valid operationalizations. The meta-analysis by de Ribera et al. (2017) included effect sizes for psychopathy that might non be suited for aggregation due to heterogeneous psychopath- vs.-nonpsychopath-comparisons. The meta-analysis by O'Boyle et al. (2013) had a comparably minor study sample. Consequently, it seemed reasonable to conduct a new meta-analysis.

Hypotheses

Taken together, there are simply weak conceptual and empirical arguments that might feed the expectation of a meaningful D3-intelligence-relation. Based on the theoretical relationships between the constructs as well every bit the bachelor empirical prove referred to in the previous sections, it was hypothesized that (a) there is no relation between psychopathy and general, verbal, and non-verbal intelligence. Furthermore, the writer expected (b) Machiavellianism and (c) narcissism each to be unrelated to general, verbal, and non-verbal intelligence. The hypotheses were non preregistered.

Several authors show that the D3 is related to relevant criteria of success in a not-linear fashion and argue that there might be an optimal level of D3-constructs (Grijalva et al., 2015; Leary & Ashman, 2018; Zettler & Solga, 2013). In an exploratory analysis, information technology was additionally tested if there are meaningful non-linear relations with P and intelligence. To exam for these relations it was necessary to analyze raw data from the studies.

Method

Literature Search and Study Selection Inclusion Criteria

The systematic literature search was conducted in July 2017 and concluded in April 2019. The databases PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Psyndex, Medline, Psychology, and Behavioral Sciences Collection and ISI – Web of Knowledge were searched by using the following terms and their combinations ("nighttime triad" OR psychopathy OR psychopath OR psychopathic OR sociopath* OR narcissist* OR Machiavellian*) and (intelligent* OR "cognitive ability*" OR "cognitive skill*" OR "mental ability*" OR "cerebral competence*") to retrieve publications written in English language ("dark triad" OR psychopathy OR psychopath OR psychopathic* OR sociopath* OR narcissist* OR Machiavelli*) and (Intelligen* OR "Kognitive Fähigkeit*" OR "Kognitive Kompetenz*") for publications in German. In addition to searching the databases, reference lists of pertinent articles and the ii recent meta-analyses by De Ribera et al. (2017) and O'Boyle et al. (2013) were inspected in order to place boosted relevant publications. Figure 1 shows a PRISMA flow diagram (Moher et al., 2009) documenting the literature search results.

Figure i PRISMA flow chart for the systematic literature search.

The total number of potentially relevant publications identified through the full-text search for screening was 9636 (set up B). Since the author was unable to properly assess such a loftier number of studies, a subset of B – the fix A – was identified by using a regular search strategy (no full-text search; only title, keywords, and abstracts were considered; n = 1,446). Five hundred studies with a DOI-number and 100 studies without a DOI-number were randomly selected from the complement of A (n = 8,190) to check if the complement embodied a substantial amount of relevant studies. But iii studies were relevant. Consequently, the remaining studies from the complement of A were not screened for relevance. The studies from fix A were screened for relevance and 301 studies were identified every bit potentially relevant. Later on the exclusion of duplicates and the inclusion of studies from additional sources that were non embodied in Set up B (due north = 43 studies from the meta-analyses, n = v identified past chance) and the 3 studies from the complement of A, 302 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility.

To be included in the meta-analysis, studies had to provide sufficient information for effect size and the associated standard mistake that indicated the strength of association between at least i of the D3-constructs and general, exact, or nonverbal intelligence. Furthermore, to ensure a minimum psychometric quality of the instruments used in the included studies, the reliability of both instruments used to estimate the force of the association had to reach a level of at to the lowest degree .lx. Well-nigh of the studies provided Pearson correlations as effect sizes. Nevertheless, it is common that psychopathy is dichotomized: a "psychopath-group" is often compared with a "not-psychopath-grouping." To be included these item studies had to fulfill a few weather condition that were derived from the Psychopathy-Checklist-Revised-Manual (PCL/PCL-R; Hare, 2003): These studies were eligible if (a) a PCL-R-Cut-Off of thirty points was used for the psychopath-grouping, (b) the non-psychopath-group had a PCL-R-mean lower than 16 or a PCL-R-Cut-Off of twenty points, and (c) the intelligence-test-hateful and standard deviation was provided for both groups. In a few cases (n = ii) comparing studies with other psychopathy tests than the PCL-R were accepted due to comprehensible reasoning regarding the comparison, for example, exam scores at least in the upper and lower quartiles of published norms for their respective age groups (Anderson & Stanford, 2012). Since a lot of studies were excluded every bit a consequence, some of these studies were coded however (but divide from the other studies) to be included in a sensitivity assay (n = 38). For each included comparison study a point biserial correlation was calculated in order to aggregate the results with the studies that reported Pearson correlations.

Subsequently, 170 studies were excluded: Some event sizes were based on the same sample and published in different papers (north = iv), some effect sizes could not be aggregated to exist used for the meta-analysis due to miscellaneous statistical and methodological reasons (north = 55), several studies made information technology incommunicable to calculate an outcome size due to an inadequate group comparing regarding psychopathy (n = 75), some studies used inadequate D3- or intelligence-tests (due north = 24), some studies were "gray," unpublished literature (due north = 8) or the studies were just irrelevant for the research question (n = 4). Fortunately, some authors of the primary studies were contacted (run across below) and were able to provide result sizes (or raw data); these studies could exist integrated into the analysis (n = 11). The terminal sample for the meta-analysis (north = 143) comprised 15 consequence sizes for narcissism, 15 effect sizes for Machiavellianism, and 192 effect sizes for psychopathy (Pearson correlations: one thousand = 137; point biserial correlations: k = 55). The information on the included studies and the reference list can be found in the dataset for this meta-analysis which is uploaded to the Open Science Framework and tin can exist inspected by using the following link: https://osf.io/ws6kj/.

Coding Studies

A coding manual was used to excerpt the relevant information from the research reports by ii independent coders. All discrepancies were inspected and resolved by the author of this written report. When furnishings sizes (based on identical sample sizes) were only available for subscales of the tests, they were aggregated to a single effect size by but determining the arithmetic mean of the issue sizes (only if outcome sizes for every subscale were available). When studies reported more than than 1 effect size based on different tests (east.1000., one effect size for the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) and one for the PCL), then the upshot size based on the PCL was preferred for P since the PCL is considered to exist the aureate standard test for P (Boduszek & Debowska, 2016). The operationalizations of intelligence were categorized into three groups: (a) not-verbal intelligence (nvI; e.m., the Raven Progressive Matrices Exam; Raven, 1981), for tests or subtests whose content was predominantly non-verbal, (b) verbal intelligence (nI; e.g., the Quick Word Test; Borgatta & Corsini, 1964), for tests or subtests whose content was predominantly verbal, and (c) general intelligence (gI; due east.one thousand., the Wechsler Developed Intelligence Calibration; Wechsler, 2012), for tests that incorporated at to the lowest degree two subtests with verbal and also non-verbal content. The complete coding rational can be plant in the dataset for this meta-analysis.

Method of Meta-Analysis

The meta-analytic model used for the psychopathy-intelligence relation is the random-effects model (RE model). For the intelligence-relation with N and M, information technology appears to be more reasonable to utilise the fixed-consequence model (Fe) since the heterogeneity variance that plays an important part in the culling RE model cannot be estimated with sufficient precision to avoid biased results if less than xxx studies are used to amass correlations in meta-analyses (Schulze, 2004). Additionally, it is difficult to argue that the available studies on North and One thousand are a random sample from a well-defined universe of studies on that specific topic. Hence, the fixed-effect model was used because information technology is appropriate for the intended inference and does not suffer from statistical result distortions nether the given circumstances in this meta-analysis. As a result, for the intelligence-relations to N and M, the inference needs to be restricted to the set of studies included in the meta-assay – while for P-intelligence inference about the average upshot in the entire population of studies is possible. Notwithstanding, the results for both models are reported. For the aggregation of effect sizes, the minimum variance unbiased figurer as proposed by Olkin and Pratt (1958) was used. All computations were conducted with the packet metafor (Viechtbauer, 2010) in R using the changed sampling variance every bit weights.

Collecting Raw Data

Since the data from the primary studies only reported linear effect sizes it is not possible to draw whatever conclusions regarding possible non-linear relations. To examine those kinds of relations, information technology was indispensable to proceeds access to raw data. In August 2019, ninety studies from the systematic literature search were identified as potentially relevant. The focus was on the intelligence-psychopathy-relation since there were only a few studies for N and Grand regarding intelligence and the D3-tests in these studies on N and M were as well heterogeneous – consequently, raw data from these studies could not take been pooled into a single data prepare.

The included studies had a sample size of at least n = 100 with the PCL (or any of its variants) equally the measure for psychopathy. 55 studies did non report whatever upshot sizes just included relevant operationalizations, 35 studies included information regarding an consequence size and had been included in the meta-analysis from the showtime. The author contacted the authors, provided information on the intentions, and asked for raw data regarding the P-intelligence-relation. It was specifically mentioned that zilch else but the PCL- and intelligence scores were needed and there were no intentions of using the data for anything else than computing effect size. If the authors were unable to provide the relevant data, they were asked to report the Pearson correlation regarding the P-intelligence-relation (if information technology had not been stated in the paper already).

The author of this report contacted the authors via electronic mail. A valid electronic mail address for the 3 authors could not exist found. 11 electronic mail-accounts seemed to exist inactive since post delivery failure messages were received. Several authors responded to the message: half-dozen authors provided Pearson correlations and 7 authors sent the requested raw data. As a result, 11 additional studies could be included in the meta-analysis (see Figure 1). Some scale scores from raw data had to be transformed in order to aggregate them in ane data set up: (a) the PCL-Short-Version-scores (PCL-SV; Hart et al., 1995) were adjusted to the PCL-R-equivalent (possible values betwixt 0 and 40) and (b) the intelligence scores from the Shipley Institute of Living Scale (SILS; Shipley, 1940) and the Leistungsprüfsystem two (LPS-2; Kreuzpointner et al., 2013) were transformed to IQ-values in accordance with norm values from Zachary et al. (1985) and the LPS-ii-manual. The included information sets stem from studies by Caldwell and Van Rybroek (2005), Copestake et al. (2013), Hale et al. (2004), Jumper et al. (2012), Kennealy et al. (2007), Köhler et al. (2016), and Snowden et al. (2004) and comprised a total sample size of N = 966. Additional information regarding the studies can exist retrieved from the dataset.

Results

The overall result sizes are depicted in Table 1. All mean effect sizes are shut to = 0 with a tendency of negative effect sizes for P. Almost relations are nonsignificant and none constitute a minor event size. The thousand for M and N is considerably lower than the k for P. The mean consequence sizes resulting from the FE model or the RE model are very similar for most all relationships. Note that there seem to be no meaningful differences betwixt general, verbal and nonverbal intelligence.

Table 1 Overall relationships between the dark triad and intelligence

The overall event sizes at the facet level of psychopathy are depicted in Table 2. The results bear witness that the aspects of psychopathy that reflect an impulsive, haphazard and thrill-seeking lifestyle, and a penchant for criminality (Factor 2, like to secondary psychopathy) are negatively related to intelligence, whereas the interpersonal aspects of P, for case, a tendency to dispense others with superficial amuse and a feeling of grandiosity, (Facet one) seem to exist completely unrelated to intelligence.

Table 2 Overall relationships between psychopathy facets and intelligence

Additionally, overall result sizes were calculated with no distinction for full general, verbal and nonverbal intelligence. If studies reported more than one effect size for different intelligence-branches that were based on the same sample, the effect size for general intelligence was chosen, otherwise the event size for verbal intelligence. For psychopathy, at that place was a negative outcome size of = −.0751 (CI [−.0999; −.0502]; one thousand = 152; N = 34,253; RE model). There were nonsignificant effects for Machiavellianism ( = .0238; CI [−.0216; .0691]; k = 15; N = one,901; FE model) and narcissism ( = .0249; CI [−.0133; .0630]; k = 13; North = ii,634; FE model).

Moderator Analyses

To quantify the heterogeneity of effect sizes I ²-values were calculated (Higgins & Thompson, 2002) and are shown in Table i. The relations regarding psychopathy showed a substantial proportion of variance in observed effect sizes that is due to heterogeneity. The confidence intervals for M and N were relatively large due to the depression number of studies available. Consequently, the I ⁱⁱ-values for Chiliad and N are not informative.

A meta-regression was conducted with the following contained variables: (a) proportion of females in the sample, (b) hateful historic period of the sample, (c) state in which the report was conducted, (d) sample type, (e) operationalization of intelligence, (f) operationalization of D3-constructs, and (grand) sample mean of the D3-test compared to norm values. The possible categories of these variables are shown in the dataset (east.g., for the variable "subjects" at that place were the categories "offender," "kid," "customs," "patient," and "pupil"). The moderator analysis was exploratory since there were no prior hypotheses regarding possible moderator furnishings.

Although at that place is no empirically or conceptually substantiated minimum yard to deport meta-regression (Borenstein et al. 2009), its results should be interpreted with circumspection when the number of outcome sizes is low. Therefore, the minimum k to behave a meta-regression in this written report was ready to x studies. The overall results are presented in Table 3. Some of the predictors showed significant moderator effects. A consistent blueprint of moderators does not be, although the operationalizations of intelligence and P seem to be potential moderators for the psychopathy-intelligence relation. Annotation that the number of effect sizes dropped substantially in some cases (e.grand., D3-level) since studies with no information regarding the moderator variables had to exist excluded from the model. Consequently, subgroup analyses were inconclusive for most variables. A subgroup assay for the psychopathy-intelligence-relation regarding P-tests showed the combined effect sizes for the PCL ( = .0817, 1000 = 78, RE model) were incomparable to other P-tests (that were non part of the PCL-exam-"family," e.g., the PCL-SV) since the number of effect sizes that were based on other tests was very low (k < 6).

Table 3 Moderator analysis

Moderators	P-gI	P-vI	P-nvI	N-nvI
Notes. The values in the cells show the corporeality of heterogeneity explained in the D3-intelligence-relation by the moderators (Q-statistic for test of moderators/total Q-statistic). "–" indicates no variance in the variable hence no moderator analysis was possible. Studies with NAs were omitted from model fitting. The k that the moderator analysis is based on is in each case shown in parentheses. All outcomes are based on the fixed-upshot model.
F	.0032 (103)	.0010 (41)	.0010 (33)	.2352 (seven)
Historic period	.0523 (84)	.0899 (26)	.0121 (29)	.6907 (5)
Nationality	.1714 (105)	.0980 (46)	.3818 (36)	.5555 (10)
Sample type	.1755 (108)	.2265 (47)	.0727 (36)	.3888 (10)
I-exam	.0249 (109)	.4983 (47)	.4862 (36)	.4210 (10)
D3-test	.1894 (109)	.4854 (47)	.3909 (36)	.2777 (10)
D3-level	.0228 (43)	.1666 (15)	.0344 (12)	–

Tabular array iii Moderator analysis

Note that it is impossible to aspect the moderator furnishings to specific moderators merely due to their common confounding and their potential confounding with other known and/or unknown variables that might be the bodily cause for the heterogeneity in observed effect sizes. For example, the PCL-examination is usually used merely in forensic samples, whereas psychopathy-self-reports are predominantly used outside of prison. It is unknown if differences in result sizes might be due to the test itself or real differences in the samples. However, even if there are differences in event sizes they appear to exist very small.

Taken together, the results from the moderator analyses are limited and should be interpreted with swell circumspection.

File-Drawer-Analysis

To exam for a possible chance of publication bias, a fail-safe-N-analysis and tests for funnel-plot-asymmetry were conducted. The results tin can be seen in Tabular array 4. The fail-condom-N past Rosenthal (1979) is just high (> v × yard + 10) for the relations regarding P. For M and N the neglect-safe-N is zero (except for Northward-nvI) since the overall meta-analytic effects were insignificant in the kickoff place. Due to decreasing power of the tests to distinguish hazard from real disproportion, the tests for funnel-plot-asymmetry (Egger et al., 1997) were only conducted when at to the lowest degree ten studies were available every bit recommended by Sterne et al. (2008). None of tests, for funnel-plot-asymmetry showed significant results as can exist seen in Table 4. Consequently, the author refrained from doing further analyses, for example, a trim-and-fill-assay (Duval & Tweedie, 2000).

Table 4 Fail-prophylactic-N analyses and Egger's regression test for funnel-plot-asymmetry

Although there was no reason to doubtable a possible publication bias in the first identify (near no study in the meta-analysis had the D3-intelligence-relation as its main topic which would have indicated a lively discussed topic and therefore the hazard of a publication bias), none of the results indicated a potential bias. However, the well-nigh convincing argument confronting a publication bias (in the sense of the withholding of studies with nonsignificant results) might be that almost all upshot sizes in the assay were very small and mostly nonsignificant. 1 tin can assume that at that place is indeed a negative relationship betwixt psychopathy and intelligence with the notion that it is probably too small to be of any applied significance.

Assay of Raw Data

Seven data sets were aggregated (total N = 966). The PCL-scores were rather loftier with Grand = 25.fourteen (SD = 8.07) and the average IQ was comparably low with G = 93.41 (SD = 13.21). The isolated single data sets mostly showed correlations around r = −.1. Surprisingly, the psychopathy-intelligence-relation in the aggregated data prepare was r = −.322 (p < .001, 95% CI [−.377; −.264], two-tailed exam) which was considerably different from the meta-analytic results and might be due to range brake in the isolated samples. Tests for linear and not-linear relationships were conducted: R ² (with the PCL-value as the independent variable) was estimated for the optimal linear, quadratic and cubic regression models. The linear regression model explained R ² = .104 of the variance in IQ-values while the nonlinear regression models did non explain a meaningful additional corporeality of variance (quadratic: R ² = .112; cubic: R ^two = .113). Therefore, linear models seem quite adequate to brandish the P-intelligence-relation.

Give-and-take

The meta-assay showed that the D3 and intelligence are at most weakly related. Whereas the psychopathy-intelligence-relation is negative, for Chiliad and N there seems to be no relation at all. Information technology should exist noted that the study sample for Grand and N is considerably lower compared to P. Two of three expectations were corroborated. Whereas M and N were (as expected) non related to cognitive abilities, the relation between psychopathy and intelligence was significant but very small. The cause for the issue might be the overlap between P and criminality: the latter has shown to be negatively related to intelligence. This becomes particularly axiomatic because the modest negative relation between intelligence and the P-Factor two (the aspect of psychopathy that comprises norm-violating behavior). Since criminality is role of many P-examination-items, it would be inadequate to interpret this overlap equally misreckoning. Furthermore, intelligence is negatively related to impulsivity (Schweizer, 2002; Vigil-Coleṭ & Morales-Vives, 2005) and aggression (Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997) – two conceptual features of Factor 2 psychopathy. Alternatively, the negative P-intelligence-relation might exist due to range restriction in the primary studies and might disappear in the course of a secondary analysis of all raw data – notwithstanding the analysis of raw data mentioned in a higher place suggests the reverse. Nevertheless, the results signal that D3-individuals exercise not accept superior cognitive abilities that might enable them to evidence complex manipulative behavior. On the other manus, they do non seem to have relevant cerebral deficits besides. If ane assumes that D3-individuals can indeed be more than successful in some contexts than others (an assumption that should exist scrutinized in the first place), this analysis demonstrates that this possible success is not a consequence of high cognitive abilities.

Surprisingly, the reanalysis of the raw data showed a moderate negative relation with intelligence: information technology is unclear if the study sample coincidently showed a moderate effect or if the meta-analytic results might have to be reinterpreted. A reanalysis of the original information from the primary studies might accept shown similar results due to an underestimation of effect sizes due to range restriction in the isolated studies. But note that an overestimation of the effect in this meta-assay is besides possible due to range brake. On the other hand, for case, Watts et al. (2016) found like results as in this meta-analysis regarding P-intelligence and did right for range restriction using a formula for correcting correlation estimates by Hunter and Schmidt (1990), which did not alter their overall results. Still, the results from a P-gI-meta-assay with k > 100 might be more apparent than the reanalysis of only vii datasets. The reanalysis of raw data did non enhance any reason to farther inspect the D3-relations to intelligence in regards to non-linear relationships.

Limitations of the Meta-Analysis

A few limitations of this meta-assay should be considered: First, the combined upshot sizes remained heterogeneous even after moderators had been taken into business relationship. As a result, the reported overall effects may be quite different in subpopulations not under investigation in the present study. Second, the number of studies for M and Due north was very small-scale, so that the inference had to be restricted to the types of studies under investigation and cannot be further generalized due to the apply of the Iron model. Third, the selection of tests for K and N that were used in the main studies was narrow – which also made possible subscale-analyses for 1000 and N impossible. This does not apply for P and most of the studies used the PCL (which is considered the "gold standard"-measure for psychopathy). Along, a more than fine-grained analysis of intelligence subdimensions on the basis of an overarching model of intelligence – preferably the Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory (Carroll, 1993) – would accept been desirable. Since the number of effect sizes per effect-size-category (e.g., P-gI) would have dropped substantially, a rather rough separation into verbal and not-verbal was the pragmatic consequence. Lastly, no gray literature was included in this analysis: Since there was no specific search for unpublished studies on the research question, a substantial body of literature might have been missed – nonetheless, the gray studies that were identified did not differ in methodology nor the reported issue size. Consequently, there was no reason to include them.

Concluding Remarks

The results relativize the assumption that the dark triad of personality is related to special abilities and is therefore an adaptive gear up of traits. None of the iii traits is positively related to intelligence – D3-individuals exercise non have special cognitive abilities that fuel the effectiveness of their manipulative endeavors. For some readers, these results might raise a question: If D3-individuals are not smarter than others, how are they capable to finer dispense others? The writer does not regard this equally a valid question, since it implies that D3-individuals are indeed more successful in some areas of activities. There is no convincing empirical evidence that shows that D3-individuals are indeed "getting ahead." A plausible requirement for loftier cognitive abilities to show certain behavior (e.grand., successful manipulations) does non found the actual presence of such loftier abilities. Although the dark triad and intelligence are unrelated, it has however to be explored if in that location are interaction effects for D3-intelligence in regards to meaningful external criteria: At least for the psychopathy-criminality-relation intelligence is often discussed as a potential moderator (Hall & Benning, 2006; Heilbrun, 1982; Vitacco et al., 2008). Taken together, a meaningful D3-intelligence-relation was not expected and none was establish.

The writer would like to thank the authors who provided the raw data for this analysis for their help and trust.

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